Tag: fabric

Posted on

A Chat With Verity du Sautoy – Her Thoughts On Winter Fabrics

Luxury Silk velvet From KOTHEA
Truly beautiful Cashmere Silk Velvet by KOTHEA

KOTHEA Fabric Picks For A Chilly Winter’s Day
With Verity du Sautoy of KOTHEA.

We love the seasons. All have their beauties and all have touched our senses in memorable ways over the years. Winter is no exception: lower, more balanced light; quietness and chaos with both the shopping and the weather; festive celebrations; the cuddle of a loved one; the hope and expectation of early spring flowers grasping for rare and tiny glimmers of light; and, perhaps, the welcomed warmth of a beautiful fabric.

Some of my best memories are centred on family: a warm fire; a little baby; or a bouncing toddler. Then an old children’s classic on the iPlayer watched on my Mac as it balances precariously on an elegant coffee table. I stroke my children’s hair with one hand and rest my other hand on my sofa. A generous cushion is warm, encapsulating and a bit of fun for the little ones to hide under. The curtains are not yet fully drawn but they smooth the boundary to the cold outside and give us tantalising glimpses of the world beyond – should we venture too close to the sheers that offer the final, soft protection from the elements.

Dominika B Tana Lawn

I work for a fabric company. I love fabric. I can’t pretend that it (fabric) is a be-all and end-all to life and that somehow it will make your life complete. It can’t. But what it clearly can do is complete the sensory experiences in the parts of life that, if you choose, you have control over…the parts of your home. Memories are not just photo-like snapshots in your brain; they are stored, multi-sensory splashes of emotion.

Here are my Winter picks. They are actual ‘picks’ that I’ve recently purchased or are about to purchase.

Take my sofa as an example. My sofa isn’t Continue reading “A Chat With Verity du Sautoy – Her Thoughts On Winter Fabrics”

Posted on

Upholstery Velvet – Sourcing Luxury Velvet (Mohair) in The UK

Luxury Mohair Velvet For Upholstery
Luxury Mohair Velvet For Upholstery

Luxury Upholstery Velvet is notoriously difficult for interior designers to consistently source. Sourcing a generic velvet is easy enough but often velvets vary greatly in quality with many being relatively cheap and scoring relatively well with Martindale results but they just look ‘cheap’. The look and feel of the velvet are, after all, two of several important reasons why you are specifying it in the first place.

A further problem is composition. When, for example, you say you want a Mohair Velvet that is what you want: a velvet made out of Mohair and NOT lots of other things PLUS a bit of Mohair.

Whilst Mohair velvets are generally very good across the market they too can vary significantly in quality. So even when you buy a Mohair Velvet you are not necessarily getting the durable, luxurious, fantastic-looking product that you hoped for.

Further complications come when looking at Velvets made of a mix of yarns. Well, some of the mixed fibre yarns are actually excellent in quality!

So I guess I’m saying that there really is no sure and fast way of knowing what you are buying without actually seeing the fabric AND being assured of its technical characteristics, notably Martindale as we are considering upholstery here.

Most KOTHEA luxury upholstery velvets have inherent Martindale rub tests of in excess of 20,000 rubs with several collections exceeding 100,000 rubs for contract usage – 20,000 Martindale being eminently suitable for domestic upholstery.

In addition to non-velvet, textured upholstery we have many luxury velvets suitable for upholstery including Italian Silk Velvet (high quality, luxury velvet), Cashmere & Silk Velvet (the ultimate velvet), trevira Velvet (inherent fire retardancy), Mohair Velvet (high quality, luxury velvet),

Most of our velvet is available by the metre with no minimum quantities.

Posted on

Fabric Tips #13: Velvet Curtain Making

Image by tenz1225 via Flickr

Here are some additional pointers to consider when you are making a curtain using a velvet. Remember that a velvet is just a type of fabric and the fibre(s) that the velvet is made from is important.

So for example, we would always recommend that you line a curtain. This gives a superior appearance but also reduced the amount of light going through the fabric hence limiting as much as possible the effect of any fading.

If the velvet has a pile that can be flattened in one direction then we would recommend that you have the pile going downwards for SHINY velvet fabrics and PATTERNED VELVETS.

If however you make up the curtain with the pile upwards then this will deepen the colour so you could make the curtains this way for cotton velvets and Trevira Velvet and Mohair velvets.

These are general guidelines and it is not necessarily wrong if you make up the curtain ‘the other way’ just so long as you understand the implications to the finished look and performance of the material.

Related Articles
Posted on

Fabric Tips #12: Rolling a velvet

Image via Wikipedia

You’ve just ordered a new velvet and unrolled it to admire your purchase. But how do you re-roll it?

When you roll almost any fabric you should have the face on the inside. With a velvet this is the pile so you have the pile on the inside.

Some, but not all, velvet piles stand straight up others will ‘lay down’. for the former it does not matter which way you then roll the fabric (provided the pile is on the inside). However for typically longer pile which lays down (ie you can brush it flat with your hand in one direction only) then you should roll the fabric down the pile as you return it to its roll.

Hopefully that made sense. Good luck.

Related Articles
Posted on

Fabric Tips #11: Mohair Velvet – How To Store

Image via Wikipedia – Alpaca Wool can be made into luxurious alpaca velvet…if you can find it

How to store Velvet.

The same instructions apply to all velvets.

Some background first: As an interior designer you buy and handle many fabrics. You may have wondered why some fabrics come in rolls of up to 100m whereas other come in much smaller lengths. Is this because of their value? The likelihood of them being sold quickly enough? Or perhaps longer lengths of some fabrics would be just to heavy for someone in a warehouse to physically carry or indeed too heavy for a courier to carry? Or perhaps it’s something to do with the thickness of the roll?

Well there is some truth no doubt in all of these reasons and others to. But one very important consideration with a velvet and especially with a Mohair velvets is the weight of the fabric and the weight of the fabric ON ITSELF. Because velvets have a pile they are thicker and heavier than other fabrics as they contain more material; similarly some velvets such as many mohair velvets have a dense pile…again more fabric and more weight.

There comes a point when the sheer weight of the roll of fabric becomes too much for the pile of the first part of the wrapped fabric on the roll and the inherent weight of all the fabric can cause damage to the pile. So velvets and especially mohair velvets have smaller lengths on the roll. Sometimes 25m but sometimes also 40m and 50m per roll.

So the length of fabric on a roll will be impacted by the weight of the fabric per linear metre AND the fact that a pile fabric can be more affected by added weight than other fabric.

So, how to store.

1. Store horizontally

2. Store with no other, external weight applied to the fabric.

3. Covered up to avoid exposure to dirt and dust i the air  -especially if stored for long periods

Typically you will find that many of our velvets come to you in special containers where the velvet is on a roll and suspended by special cardboard ends in the boxes. For small volumes of velvet on a single roll there is often no need for these special containers. Where the velvets are supplied in suspended roll containers it is safe to store the velvet in this form. Ideally youwould have a horizontal racking system for rolls of fabric as lengths can easily be cut off as and when you need them but cleary most interior designers do not have this facility.

The safest method of course is to let your supplier hold the stock and order cut lengths from them. It de-risks you damaging the fabric. Unless of course the supplier can specifically reserve entire rolls just for you, you would have the potential problem of dye lot or batch variation of colour with many fabric dyes. There would normally be a charge for an additional service such as this.

Related Articles
Posted on

Upholstery Linen – Sourcing Luxury Upholstery Linen in the UK

Upholstery Linen
Upholstery Linen

Upholstery Linen is notoriously difficult for interior designers to source. Sourcing linens for curtains is easy enough but often linens are not woven with sufficient strength to score Martindale results that are high enough to warrant using the fabric for upholstery.

Some suppliers can be a little evasive and will quote the weight of the linen as a measure of the linen’s quality. The implication is that the higher the weight the better suited the fabric will be for upholstery. There is some truth in that implication but you cannot say for certain that high-weight linen is inherently suitable for upholstery. Get the Martindale!

Most KOTHEA luxury upholstery linens have inherent Martindale rub tests of around 20,000 rubs with one range further strengthened to 85,000 rubs for contract usage – 20,000 Martindale being eminently suitable for domestic upholstery.

Furthermore, when buying upholstery- (or curtain-) linen you need to know whether or not it will shrink when washed. Linen ALWAYS shrinks. So what you have to find out is whether or not it has been pre-shrunk before you buy it. A common way of pre-shrinking linen is through the sanforisation process.

Click To Read More Interior Design Articles
Click To Read More Interior Design Articles

Here are the details of our new 2011 upholstery linens that are named Recline, Relax and Restful. We have many others, these are just the new ones:

Name: Recline

Usage: Luxury Contract Upholstery

Colourways: 24

Width:   135cm

Comp:  54% Li 35% Co 11% Pa

Weight: >350g/m2

Notes:   Martindale >85,000

Request Samples

Name: Relax

Usage: Luxury Domestic Upholstery

Colourways: 24

Width:  135cm

Comp: 100% Li

Weight: >265 g/m2

Notes:   Martindale >15,000

Request Samples

Name: Restful

Usage: Heavyweight Luxury Domestic Upholstery

Colourways: 4

Width:  135cm

Comp: 100% Li

Weight: >470 g/m2

Notes:   Martindale >45,000

Request Samples

 

Posted on

Fabric Abbreviations and Textile Label Codes: A Complete Reference for Interior Designers

Fabric Abbreviations and Textile Label Codes: A Complete Reference for Interior Designers

Two separate systems: Fabric labels carry both fibre composition abbreviations (WO for wool, CO for cotton, PES for polyester) and cleaning code abbreviations (W, S, WS, X). They are different systems with different purposes.
Most searched: WS, WV, WP, PA, CV, EA — these are fibre composition codes, not cleaning codes. WS means cashmere goat; it is not the cleaning code for water-soluble cleaning.
Cleaning codes: W means water-based cleaning. S means solvent or dry cleaning only. WS means either method. X means vacuum or brush only — no liquid cleaning.
European standard: ISO 2076 defines the standard fibre abbreviations used across the EU. Some Italian and European variants differ from the ISO codes.

Fabric labels on upholstery textiles, curtain fabrics, and soft furnishings carry two distinct types of abbreviated code: fibre composition codes declaring what the fabric is made from, and cleaning codes declaring how it should be maintained. Understanding the difference between the two systems, and knowing what each code means, is a practical daily requirement for any interior designer or specifier. This reference covers both systems in full.

Fibre Composition Abbreviations

Fibre composition abbreviations on fabric labels follow ISO 2076, the international standard for textile fibre names. The codes below are the standard abbreviations used across the UK and EU. All EU fabrics must carry a label declaring fibre content by percentage using these codes.

Natural Protein Fibres

WO — Wool. Fleece of the domestic sheep.

WV — Virgin wool. Wool that has not previously been processed into a textile product. Distinct from recycled or reclaimed wool. Also written as New Wool on British labels.

WP — Alpaca wool. Fleece of the alpaca. In some Italian labelling WP also indicates baby alpaca specifically.

WL — Llama wool.

WS — Cashmere. Fibre from the undercoat of the cashmere goat, known in German as Kaschmir and in French as Cachemire. WS appears on cashmere fabric and cashmere throw labels as the fibre composition code. It is not a cleaning code.

WM — Mohair. Fleece of the Angora goat. Used in mohair velvet upholstery fabric and mohair knit fabrics.

WK — Camel hair.

WA — Angora wool. Fibre from the Angora rabbit. Distinct from WM (mohair, which is from the Angora goat).

SE — Silk. Natural protein fibre produced by the silkworm. In German the word for silk is Seide, hence SE.

Natural Cellulosic Fibres

CO — Cotton. The most widely used upholstery and curtain fibre globally.

LI — Linen (flax). Bast fibre from the flax plant. Also known by its German name Leinen or French lin.

HA — Hemp. Bast fibre from the cannabis plant. In German Hanf.

JU — Jute. Bast fibre, typically used in hessian and backing fabrics.

SI — Sisal. Leaf fibre from the agave plant.

CR — Coir. Coconut fibre used in matting and some backing applications.

Man-Made Fibres from Natural Sources

CV — Viscose (also known as rayon). Regenerated cellulosic fibre made from wood pulp. Widely used in fabric linings, velvet piles, and blended upholstery fabrics. Also written as VI on some Italian labels.

CMD — Modal (also known as polynosic). A modified form of viscose with higher wet strength.

CLY — Lyocell. Regenerated cellulosic fibre produced in a closed-loop solvent process. Sold under the brand name Tencel by Lenzing AG.

CA — Acetate. Cellulose acetate, a semi-synthetic fibre with a silky handle. Not suitable for FR treatment at significant proportions.

CTA — Triacetate. Similar care and treatment limitations to CA.

CUP — Cuprammonium (cupro). Used in some luxury linings and smooth-handle fabrics.

Synthetic Fibres

PES — Polyester. The most widely used synthetic fibre globally. Trevira CS is a permanently flame-retardant variant of polyester.

PA — Polyamide (nylon). In some European labelling also appears as NY.

PAN — Acrylic (polyacrylonitrile). Not suitable for FR treatment. Solution-dyed acrylic such as Sunbrella is the standard for outdoor and marine upholstery. In Italian labelling sometimes abbreviated as PM.

PP — Polypropylene. Not suitable for FR treatment.

PUR — Polyurethane. Used in stretch fabrics and as a bonding layer in coated or laminated textiles.

EL — Elastane (also known as spandex or Lycra). Also written as EA on some Italian labels.

MT or ME — Metallic fibre.

AF — Other fibres not otherwise classified.

Common Italian and European Label Variants

VI — Viscose (equivalent to CV in ISO standard).

EA — Elastane (equivalent to EL in ISO standard).

PM — Acrylic or polyester (context-dependent in Italian labelling).

PC — Acrylic (polyacrylonitrile, equivalent to PAN).

PBT — Polybutylene terephthalate, a form of polyester used in some technical fabrics.

WP — Baby alpaca in some Italian labelling.

Cleaning Code Abbreviations

Cleaning codes appear on upholstery fabric data sheets and on care labels attached to finished upholstered pieces. They are a separate system from the fibre composition abbreviations.

W — Water-based cleaning. The fabric can be cleaned using water-based cleaning agents and foam upholstery cleaners. This code does not mean the fabric is waterproof — it means water-based products can be applied to the surface without damage.

S — Solvent-based cleaning only. The fabric should be cleaned using dry-cleaning solvents only. Water applied to an S-coded fabric will typically cause watermarks, pile distortion, or shrinkage. Most velvet fabrics — including mohair velvet, cotton velvet, and silk velvet — carry an S code. This is the single most important cleaning code for interior designers to communicate to clients and housekeeping teams.

WS — Either water-based or solvent-based cleaning may be used. Note that WS as a cleaning code is entirely distinct from WS as a fibre composition code (cashmere). The context — care label or fibre content label — determines which meaning applies.

X — No liquid cleaning. The fabric should only be maintained by vacuuming or brushing. No water-based or solvent-based liquid cleaners should be applied.

P — Professional dry cleaning only (used on garment care labels following GINETEX international care symbols).

F — Professional dry cleaning with petroleum-based solvent (GINETEX care symbols).

Understanding WS, WV, and WP: The Most Commonly Confused Abbreviations

Three abbreviations cause consistent confusion because they look like cleaning codes but are fibre composition codes.

WS is cashmere. WV is virgin wool. WP is alpaca or baby alpaca. All three are fibre composition abbreviations defined by ISO 2076. They appear on fabric content labels alongside the percentage of each fibre present — for example, 90% WS 10% SE means 90% cashmere and 10% silk. They have no connection to cleaning instructions.

When a fabric data sheet or care label shows WS followed by a percentage, it is always a fibre content declaration. When WS appears alone on a care instructions line or inside a cleaning care symbol, it is always a cleaning code.

Quick Reference List

  • AB — Abaca
  • AF — Other fibres
  • CA — Acetate
  • CLY — Lyocell / Tencel
  • CMD — Modal
  • CO — Cotton
  • CR — Coir
  • CTA — Triacetate
  • CUP — Cuprammonium / Cupro
  • CV — Viscose / Rayon
  • EA — Elastane (Italian variant of EL)
  • EL — Elastane / Spandex / Lycra
  • HA — Hemp
  • JU — Jute
  • LI — Linen / Flax
  • ME / MT — Metallic fibre
  • PA — Polyamide / Nylon
  • PAN — Acrylic
  • PBT — Polybutylene terephthalate
  • PC — Acrylic (Italian variant)
  • PES — Polyester
  • PM — Acrylic or polyester (Italian variant)
  • PP — Polypropylene
  • PUR — Polyurethane
  • SE — Silk
  • SI — Sisal
  • VI — Viscose (Italian variant of CV)
  • WA — Angora wool
  • WK — Camel hair
  • WL — Llama wool
  • WM — Mohair
  • WO — Wool
  • WP — Alpaca / Baby alpaca
  • WS — Cashmere
  • WV — Virgin wool

Cleaning codes:

  • W — Water-based cleaning safe
  • S — Solvent / dry clean only
  • WS — Water or solvent cleaning safe
  • X — Vacuum or brush only. No liquid cleaning

For fabric care symbols and international care label icons, see our fabric care symbols guide. For cleaning codes by fabric type including mohair velvet and faux leather, see our fabric hand and tactile properties guide. For mohair velvet and upholstery fabric ranges, visit the mohair velvet upholstery page. .

Request Samples

Order cutting samples of any fabric from our current collections. Trade accounts only.

Order Cuttings
Posted on

What Is Sanforisation? Sanforised and Sanforising Explained for Interior Designers

What Is Sanforisation? Sanforised and Sanforising Explained for Interior Designers

What it is: A mechanical pre-shrinking finishing process applied to woven fabric before it leaves the mill. Named after Sanford Lockwood Cluett, who patented the process in 1930.
Which fabrics: Most commonly applied to cotton and linen. Also used on some cotton-blend upholstery and shirting fabrics.
Why it matters: Fabric that has not been sanforised may shrink when used in curtains or upholstery that are subsequently washed or exposed to moisture. Sanforised fabric has been pre-shrunk to defined limits at the mill, reducing but not eliminating subsequent shrinkage.
On the label: Sanforised is a registered trademark. Fabric labelled Sanforised has been tested and certified to shrink no more than 1% in either direction. Sanforised-Plus is the rating for fabrics with even greater dimensional stability.

Sanforising is a mechanical finishing process applied to woven fabric to reduce the shrinkage that would otherwise occur when the fabric is exposed to moisture or heat after making up. Interior designers encounter the term on fabric data sheets and labels, most commonly on cotton and linen upholstery and curtain fabrics. Understanding what it means and what it does not guarantee is a practical specification consideration.

How the Process Works

Sanforising passes the woven fabric through a machine that compresses it mechanically in the warp direction — along the length of the fabric. A rubber blanket is stretched and then released, and the fabric is carried through this process so that the yarns are forced into a more compact arrangement in the warp direction before they are set by steam. The result is a fabric whose yarns have already been displaced into the position they would naturally move to if the fabric were washed. When the finished curtain or upholstered piece is subsequently washed or exposed to moisture, the fabric has less remaining tendency to shrink because the displacement has already occurred.

The process addresses warp shrinkage — shrinkage along the length of the fabric. Weft shrinkage — shrinkage across the width — is controlled by a separate process called tentering, in which the fabric is held to a defined width during drying and heat setting. Sanforised fabric has typically been through both processes.

What Sanforised Means on a Label

Sanforised is a registered trademark owned by Cluett, Peabody and Co. Fabric carrying the Sanforised mark has been independently tested and certified to shrink no more than 1% in either the warp or weft direction when washed. This is the residual shrinkage after the sanforising process — fabric may still shrink by up to 1% in each direction, but no more.

Sanforised-Plus is a higher standard, certifying residual shrinkage of no more than 0.5% in either direction. It appears on some high-quality cotton fabrics and performance linens.

Fabric described as pre-shrunk rather than Sanforised may have been through a similar mechanical process but without independent certification to the same standard. The level of residual shrinkage permitted under a pre-shrunk claim is not standardised.

What It Does Not Guarantee

Sanforised certification applies to shrinkage caused by washing. It does not address all the dimensional changes that fabric may undergo in use. Natural fibre fabrics — cotton and linen in particular — absorb and release atmospheric moisture as humidity changes. This hygroscopic behaviour causes minor dimensional changes that are distinct from washing shrinkage and are not addressed by sanforising. In environments with significant humidity variation — a room that alternates between very dry and very damp conditions — even sanforised linen or cotton may show minor dimensional change over time.

Sanforised certification also does not address the relaxation shrinkage that may occur in curtains hung under their own weight over time, particularly in heavy cotton or linen fabrics. This is a tension-release effect rather than a moisture-induced shrinkage and is unrelated to the sanforising process.

Relevance for Upholstery Specification

For upholstery fabrics that will not be washed — most contract upholstery is dry-clean or spot-clean only — sanforised certification has limited direct relevance to the face fabric performance. Where it matters most is in curtain fabrics that will be laundered, and in loose covers and cushion covers in domestic settings where machine washing is planned.

For linen upholstery fabrics, the dimensional stability of the fabric during making-up is more practically significant than its washing shrinkage. A fabric that relaxes or distorts during the tension applied in upholstery construction will affect the alignment of the finished piece regardless of its sanforised status. Confirm dimensional stability under tension with the supplier for any linen or cotton fabric being used in tight upholstery applications.

For linen upholstery fabric specification, see our upholstery linen page. For fabric care and cleaning codes, see our fabric care symbols guide. For fabric hand and how natural fibres behave in use, see our fabric hand and tactile properties guide.

Request Samples

Order cutting samples of any fabric from our current collections. Trade accounts only.

Order Cuttings
Posted on

KOTWIG – New Farbic From KOTHEA

KOTHEA Release New Fabric For Interiors

LONDON, England. 04-MAY-2009 11.30 AM: KOTHEA today announced it has expanded its product range by the addition of KOTWIG. KOTWIG has an off-the-wall textured design. It has a high Martindale score which is unusually achieved without incorporating polyester. It is highly suitable for a wide range of uses including heavy upholstery and wall treatments in either domestic or contract installations.

Flickr Image Of KOTWIG
Flickr Image Of KOTWIG

Full information can be found <here>.

KOTWIG

Reference: 14-002-436

Colour Shown: Brown – Light Brown

Other colourways: 20

Width: 145cm

Repeat: None

Composition: 43% Linen, 36% Viscose, 21% Cotton.

Martindale: 40,000 ‘rubs’

Primary Usage: General upholstery or wall treatments, contract & domestic.

Type of fabric: Textured Weave

About KOTHEA.

KOTHEA are a top-market fabric house based in London serving customers throughout all of Europe and The Middle East. Founded in 1999 they have since continued to develop and sell an extensive range of timeless fabrics to the top architects, interior- and yacht-designers for projects ranging from mega-yachts to boutique hotels and from luxury spas to penthouses.

KOTHEA operate on a trade-only basis and their fabrics are available to the public through interior designers and specialist interior design shops such as Gotham, Interiors Bis and Fiona Campbell. KOTHEA also supply beautiful hand-woven linen fabrics and finished goods – throws and table linen.

KOTHEA’s trade customers would perceive their signature fabrics to include several ranges of velvet including the exclusive ‘cashmere silk velvet’, silks, linens, double-width sheers, faux leather and interesting weaves for upholstery often with high Martindale ‘rub tests’ making them highly suited to both contract and residential projects.

Founder and Executive Director, Lisa Parsons started KOTHEA more than 10 years ago after 11 highly successful years with Nobilis Fontan in Chelsea and Donghia in Chelsea Harbour. She says, “At KOTHEA we like to think we bring something a little different to the market. Our difference will be reflected in our customers’ eyes by unusual fabrics that complement our core fabric ranges; all augmented by our excellent levels of customers service, market knowledge and attention to detail.”

Posted on

Synthetic Dyes and Their Development

If you’re reading this you’ve probably already read my very brief history of natural dyes. The rest of the following discussion is not quite so brief and does get quite technical in a chemical sense but I’ve tried to omit as much of that as possible to make the information accessible to normal readers like you and me.

Within the space of 50 years, mankind had changed almost totally from natural dyes to synthetic ones. Phase 1 of this change was the addition of Chromium. The subsequent, often parallel, phases are discussed below with a bias towards how they apply to fabrics.

The 8 subsequent developments of synthetic dyes from Chromium onwards are:
(1. Chromium)
2. Triphenylmethane dyes
3. Anthraquinone dyes
4. Xanthene and related dyes
5. Azo dyes
6. Reactive dyes
7. Phthalocyanine compounds
8. Quinacridone compounds
9. Fluorescent brighteners

Phase 2: Triphenylmethane dyes

In 1858 Verguin (France) discovers ‘fuchsine’ a rose coloured dye made from aniline and tin chloride. This was the first of a series of dyes later called Triphenylmethanes and this marked the second phase of the growth of the synthetic dye industry. Adding excess aniline made aniline blue. Soon other variations were discovered and the chemistry understood; and before 1900 several hundred colours had been documented.

One problem with these dyes was solubility. That was overcome by the addition of sulphuric acid.

Phase 3: Anthraquinone dyes

In the 1850s and 1860s, the understanding of how carbon is structured (tetravalency) led to scientists being able to plan how chemicals might react before doing the experiments. Alizarin and its derivatives (the anthraquinones) gave a huge number of dyes which constitute the second biggest grouping of dyes.

The addition of sulphur created a group of bright, fast dyes for wool. Indrathone blue, a brilliant blue vat dye, was discovered at the turn of the century and related compounds are still today used as pigments spanning colours from blue to yellow.

Phase 4: Xanthene related dyes

Fluorescein was discovered in 1871 but related discoveries were seldom used with fabrics until the late 1880s when some were used for silk. However, the dyes had poor lightfastness and usage was stopped – only to be re-used 70 years later when they were found to be particularly good on acrylic fibres. Better products have been found since and now only one chemical dye in this class is used commercially (Safranine T).

Phase 5: Azo dyes

These form more than half of the commercial dyes used today.

The key is the reaction of nitrous acid with arylamine and then with phenols and arylamines. This chemical reaction forms part of the production process of 50% of dyes in use today having been used since 1875, firstly for wool.

Methyl- related azo dyes were used extensively up until the 1970s but this has now stopped in many countries as they were carcinogenic.

The discovery of the azo dyes led to the development of a method called ingrain dyeing. Here the dye is ‘made’ within the fabric. Since the process was carried out at around freezing point, some dyes were called ice colours. In 1912 Naphtol was found to form a water-soluble compound with an affinity for cotton, a major step in the development of the ingrain dyes. Naphtol is able to form a great number of possible end colours although many of these are not adequately colourfast.

Other Azo dyes became the most important commercial colourants because of their wide colour range, good fastness properties, and tinctorial strength (colour density), which is twice that of the anthraquinones, the second most important group of dyes. Azo dyes are easily prepared from many readily available, inexpensive compounds and meet the demands of a wide range of end uses. Cost advantages tend to offset the fact that these are less brilliant and less lightfast than the anthraquinones.

Phase 6: Reactive dyes

Reactive dyes are very adaptable and can create a huge number of colours.

The first reactive dyes utilized monoazo for bright yellow and red shades. Adding aniline gave the azo dye used in the first Procion Red.

Dichlorotriazinyl dyes are now produced by more than 30 dye manufacturers since the early patents on these dyes have expired.

With the introduction of reactive dyes, cotton could finally be dyed in bright shades with azo dyes for yellows to reds, with anthraquinones for blues, and with copper phthalocyanines for bright turquoise colours.

Phase 7: Phthalocyanine compounds

Phthalocyanines, the most important chromium derivatives developed in the 20th century being introduced in 1934 and marketed as Monastral Fast Blue B and Monastral Fast Blue G.

Copper phthalocyanine is the most important and can be formed directly on cotton. Although not useful for PET and acrylics, some complexes are utilized with nylon. Chemical bleaching alters the shade to bluish-green and green.

Water-soluble versions were developed later by the introduction of sulphur-based chemicals also producing a direct dye for cotton (Chlorantine Fast Turquoise Blue Gll), the first commercial phthalocyanine dye.

Such colourants all display strong, bright blue to green shades with remarkable chemical stability. These compounds exhibit excellent lightfastness, and their properties are in striking contrast to those of natural pigments that are destroyed by intense light or heat and mild chemical reagents. The high stability, strength, and brightness of the phthalocyanines render them cost-effective, illustrated by the wide use of blue and green labels on many products.

Phase 8: Quinacridone compounds

A second group of pigments developed in the 20th century were the quinacridone compounds. Quinacridone itself was introduced in 1958. Its seven crystalline forms range in colour from yellowish-red to violet.

Phase 9: Fluorescent brighteners

Raw natural fibres, paper, and plastics tend to appear yellowish because of weak light absorption. Bleaching can reduce this but the bleach must be mild to avoid damaging the material. Alternatively, a bluing agent can mask the yellowish tint to make the material ‘appear’ whiter (hence the phrase a ‘bluey whiteness’), or the material can be treated with a fluorescent compound that weakly emits blue visible light. These compounds, also called “optical brighteners,” they are not dyes in the usual sense. The major industrial applications are as textile finishers, pulp and paper brighteners.

Well done for getting this far!