Category: Upholstery

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How Much Fabric to Upholster Furniture: Estimates by Type

Estimating how much fabric a piece of furniture needs is one of the most common calculations in a specification, and one of the easiest to get wrong. This guide gives working estimates by furniture type in metres, explains the variables that change them, and shows how to add the pattern-repeat allowance. For pattern matching and repeat calculation, see our pattern matching guide.

Estimates by Furniture Type

These are working estimates for plain fabric on a standard piece, based on a 140 cm wide fabric. They are starting points for budgeting and initial ordering, not a substitute for the upholsterer’s measured calculation on the specific frame.

PiecePlain fabric estimate (140 cm wide)
Dining chair, seat only0.5 to 0.75 m
Dining chair, seat and back1.5 to 2 m
Occasional or accent chair2.5 to 4 m
Armchair5 to 7 m
Wing chair6 to 8 m
Two-seat sofa10 to 14 m
Three-seat sofa14 to 18 m
Large or corner sofa18 to 25 m
Headboard, single2 to 3 m
Headboard, king3 to 4.5 m
Ottoman or footstool1.5 to 3 m

What Changes the Estimate

Several variables move the figure up from the base estimate, sometimes substantially. Fabric width is the first: the estimates above assume 140 cm. A narrower fabric, such as 130 cm, needs proportionally more length, and a very narrow fabric changes the cutting plan entirely. Pattern repeat is the second and largest: a patterned fabric needs extra length to align the repeat across panels, added on top of the plain estimate. A directional fabric or one with a pile that must run the same way on every panel, such as velvet, restricts how pieces can be cut and raises the quantity. Deep buttoning, pleating, valances, and contrast piping all add fabric. Loose covers need more than tight upholstery because of tuck-ins and hems.

Adding the Pattern Repeat

The estimates above are for plain fabric. For a patterned fabric, add the repeat allowance on top: one full vertical repeat per cut length for a straight match, one and a half vertical repeats per cut length for a half drop. On a large-scale repeat this can add a significant proportion to the plain figure. The full method, with worked examples, is in our pattern matching guide.

The Rule That Prevents Shortfalls

Always have the upholsterer confirm the measured quantity against the specific frame before the fabric is ordered, and order the full quantity in one dye lot. A job that runs short mid-way needs a fresh order from a potentially different dye lot, which risks a visible colour difference and a programme delay. For dye lot management on larger orders, see our lead times and custom colour matching guide. For the full specification library organised by environment, application, and performance need, see our fabric buying guide by purpose.

Quick answers

How much fabric do I need to reupholster a sofa?
As a working estimate on 140 cm wide plain fabric, allow 10 to 14 metres for a two-seat sofa, 14 to 18 metres for a three-seat sofa, and 18 to 25 metres for a large or corner sofa. These are starting points for budgeting. A patterned fabric needs more to align the repeat, and a directional or pile fabric such as velvet needs more because of cutting restrictions. Always have the upholsterer confirm the measured quantity against the specific frame before ordering.


How much fabric to upholster a dining chair?
For a drop-in or fixed seat only, allow 0.5 to 0.75 metres of 140 cm wide plain fabric per chair. For a chair with an upholstered seat and back, allow 1.5 to 2 metres. Add a pattern-repeat allowance for patterned fabric, and order all chairs in a set from a single dye lot to avoid colour variation between them.


Why does a patterned fabric need more than a plain one?
A patterned fabric must be cut so the repeat aligns across every panel and seam, which means each cut length starts at the same point in the repeat and the fabric between those points is waste. Add one full vertical repeat per cut length for a straight match and one and a half for a half drop. On a large-scale repeat this can add a substantial proportion to the plain estimate.

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Cold Crack Temperature Testing for Coated Fabrics: A Specifier’s Guide

Cold Crack Temperature Testing for Coated Fabrics: A Specifier’s Guide

What it measures: The lowest temperature at which the surface coating of a faux leather or coated fabric cracks when flexed.
UK standard: BS EN ISO 17233, the UK-adopted form of the international ISO 17233:2017 method.
Typical performance: Standard PVC begins to stiffen around 0 degrees Celsius and may crack below minus 5 degrees. Cold-resistant formulations can be specified to withstand minus 20 degrees or lower.
When it matters: Marine exterior use, outdoor terrace furniture, and any cold-climate installation.

Cold crack temperature is a performance property that determines whether a coated fabric will survive flexing in cold conditions without its surface fracturing. It is rarely discussed in standard upholstery specification because most interior fabric is used in heated environments where it is not relevant. For coated fabrics used in exterior, marine, or cold-climate applications, it is one of the most important specification questions and one of the least frequently asked. This guide explains what the test measures, what the results mean, and when to request the data.

For the broader comparison of coated fabric types, see our faux leather types compared guide. For exterior and semi-outdoor specification, see our outdoor terrace fabric specification guide.

Why Coated Fabrics Crack in Cold Conditions

PVC is a rigid polymer in its raw state. To make it flexible enough for use as a faux leather, plasticisers are added. These are compounds that sit between the polymer chains and allow them to move relative to one another, giving the material its flexibility and soft handle. The behaviour of these plasticisers at low temperatures determines the cold performance of the finished fabric.

As temperature falls, the polymer approaches its glass transition point, the temperature at which it changes from a flexible state to a hard, brittle one. Below this point, the material no longer flexes; it fractures. If a coated fabric is flexed or stressed while in this brittle state, such as when someone sits on an exterior cushion in cold weather, the surface coating cracks. These cracks deepen over time, expose the backing fabric, and lead eventually to complete surface failure.

The glass transition point is not fixed. It depends on the plasticiser chemistry used in the specific formulation. Standard general-purpose plasticisers give a relatively high transition point, meaning the material becomes brittle at temperatures only slightly below freezing. Specialist low-temperature plasticisers give a much lower transition point, keeping the material flexible well below minus 20 degrees Celsius.

The Test: BS EN ISO 17233

The cold crack temperature of a coated fabric is determined by BS EN ISO 17233, the UK-adopted form of the international ISO 17233:2017 method. It specifies a procedure for determining the temperature at which the surface coating of a flexible coated material cracks.

The method conditions test pieces at a series of decreasing temperatures. It begins at 0 degrees Celsius and steps down in defined increments, minus 5, minus 10, minus 15, minus 20, minus 25, and minus 30 degrees Celsius, using fresh test pieces at each stage. At each temperature the conditioned test pieces are flexed and examined for cracking. The cold crack temperature is recorded as the temperature at which the surface coating of at least two test pieces cracks.

The result is a single temperature value. A fabric with a cold crack temperature of minus 20 degrees has demonstrated that its coating remains intact when flexed at temperatures down to that point. A fabric with a cold crack temperature of minus 5 degrees will crack if flexed at any temperature below that.

US Equivalent Test Methods

Two ASTM methods are used in the United States for equivalent cold performance testing and may appear on data sheets for material of US origin. ASTM D2136 is a low-temperature bend test for coated fabrics, a pass or fail procedure at a specified temperature. ASTM D2137 determines the brittleness point of flexible polymers and coated fabrics. Where a data sheet cites an ASTM result rather than a BS EN ISO figure, confirm the test temperature and criteria, as the methods are not directly interchangeable with the BS EN ISO 17233 stepped procedure.

What Results to Specify by Application

The cold crack temperature required depends on the lowest temperature the fabric will experience in service, including overnight and seasonal extremes, not the average temperature.

Interior heated environments. Cold crack temperature is not a relevant specification criterion. Any standard coated fabric performs adequately in a permanently heated interior.

Covered exterior and semi-outdoor. Hotel terraces, covered courtyards, and similar spaces that are unheated but sheltered experience temperatures down to local winter minimums. In the UK this means specifying for temperatures that can fall several degrees below freezing overnight in winter. A cold crack temperature of minus 20 degrees provides a safe margin for UK exterior use.

Marine exterior. Deck seating and exterior cushions on vessels experience both low temperatures and constant flexing from use and from the movement of the vessel. Marine exterior applications should specify a cold-resistant formulation with a confirmed cold crack temperature well below the coldest expected operating condition.

Cold-climate installations. Projects in continental or northern climates where winter temperatures fall well below UK minimums require correspondingly lower cold crack temperatures. Confirm the coldest expected temperature at the installation location and specify a margin below it.

Silicone Leather and Cold Performance

Silicone leather does not use plasticisers. Its flexibility is a property of the silicone polymer itself rather than of added compounds. This means it does not have the plasticiser-driven glass transition behaviour that causes PVC to crack in cold conditions. Silicone leather remains flexible across a much wider temperature range than PVC and is the more reliable specification for applications combining cold exposure with constant flexing. This is one of the specific properties that justifies its price premium in exterior and marine applications. For the full comparison, see our faux leather types compared guide.

What to Ask the Supplier

For any coated fabric being specified for exterior, marine, or cold-climate use, request the cold crack temperature determined by BS EN ISO 17233, expressed as a specific temperature in degrees Celsius.

Confirm whether the figure applies to the specific colourway and finish being specified, as formulation can vary across a range.

Where the fabric is of US origin and the data sheet cites an ASTM result, request the test temperature and pass criteria so the result can be interpreted against the UK application requirement.

For marine and exterior applications, confirm the cold crack figure alongside the UV and light fastness data, since these applications combine cold exposure with sustained sunlight and both must be satisfied.

Quick answers

What is cold crack temperature for faux leather?
Cold crack temperature is the lowest temperature at which the surface coating of a faux leather cracks when flexed. It is determined by BS EN ISO 17233, the UK-adopted form of the international ISO 17233:2017 method, which conditions test pieces at decreasing temperatures from 0 degrees Celsius down to minus 30 and records the temperature at which the coating fractures. Standard PVC typically cracks below minus 5 degrees; cold-resistant formulations can withstand minus 20 degrees or lower.

Why does PVC faux leather crack in cold weather?
PVC is made flexible by adding plasticisers. As temperature falls, the polymer approaches its glass transition point, below which it becomes hard and brittle rather than flexible. If flexed in this brittle state, such as when someone sits on an exterior cushion in cold weather, the surface coating cracks. The transition temperature depends on the plasticiser chemistry: standard formulations become brittle just below freezing, while specialist low-temperature formulations remain flexible below minus 20 degrees.

What cold crack temperature should I specify for outdoor use?
Specify for the lowest temperature the fabric will experience in service, including overnight and seasonal extremes, not the average. For UK covered exterior and semi-outdoor use, a cold crack temperature of minus 20 degrees Celsius provides a safe margin against winter overnight lows. Marine exterior and continental cold-climate installations require correspondingly lower figures. Confirm the coldest expected temperature at the installation location and specify a margin below it.

Does silicone leather crack in the cold?
Silicone leather does not use plasticisers, so it does not have the glass transition behaviour that causes PVC to crack in cold conditions. Its flexibility is a property of the silicone polymer itself and remains stable across a much wider temperature range than PVC. This makes silicone leather the more reliable specification for applications combining cold exposure with constant flexing, such as marine deck seating and exterior furniture, and is one of the properties that justifies its price premium.

Is cold crack testing the same as the ASTM cold bend test?
They measure the same property but are not directly interchangeable. BS EN ISO 17233 is the UK and international method, using a stepped procedure that records the temperature at which the coating cracks. ASTM D2136, used in the United States, is a pass or fail bend test at a single specified temperature, and ASTM D2137 determines a brittleness point. Where a data sheet of US origin cites an ASTM result, confirm the test temperature and criteria so it can be interpreted against the UK application requirement.

For the full comparison of PVC, PU, and silicone leather including durability and fire certification, see our faux leather types compared guide. For exterior and semi-outdoor fabric specification, see our outdoor terrace fabric specification guide.

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Faux Leather Sustainability: A Specifier’s Guide to Chemical Safety, Durability and Certification

Faux Leather Sustainability: A Specifier’s Guide to Chemical Safety, Durability and Certification

The honest position: Faux leather sustainability is best assessed through chemical compliance, durability, and certification rather than a single environmental claim.
Chemical baseline: UK REACH compliance is mandatory and restricts phthalate plasticisers, heavy metal stabilisers, and azo dyes.
Durability as environmental performance: A coated fabric achieving 200,000 Martindale rubs and a service life measured in decades requires replacement far less frequently than shorter-lived alternatives.
Type matters: Silicone leather leads on most environmental measures, PU sits between, and PVC is the most durable and readily certified.

Sustainability in faux leather is frequently reduced to a single word on a specification sheet, which is of little use to a designer who has to defend a material choice to a client or a developer. A more useful approach is to assess the material against the specific dimensions that can be documented and verified: chemical compliance, durability and service life, and the certifications the material holds. This guide sets out how to evaluate faux leather on those terms.

For chemical compliance in detail, see our faux leather types compared guide and our fabric sustainability certifications guide.

Chemical Compliance: The Documented Baseline

The most verifiable dimension of faux leather sustainability is chemical safety, governed in the UK by UK REACH. This is a mandatory regulation rather than a voluntary certification, which means every faux leather sold into the UK must meet it. UK REACH restricts substances of very high concern, and several of these historically featured in coated fabric manufacture.

Phthalate plasticisers are the most significant. Since November 2020, DEHP, DBP, DIBP, and BBP have been restricted to 1,000 mg per kilogram in consumer textiles under REACH. These compounds were used to make PVC flexible. High-specification PVC faux leather now uses phthalate-free plasticiser formulations as standard. Requesting confirmation of phthalate-free formulation is the single most useful chemical safety question a specifier can ask.

Heavy metal stabilisers, historically lead and cadmium compounds in PVC, are also restricted. Current-generation material uses calcium-zinc stabiliser systems. Azo dyes releasing carcinogenic amines are restricted across all fibre types. A faux leather confirmed compliant on these three points is safer for the people who manufacture it, install it, and use it, which is a substantive and defensible dimension of responsible specification.

Where a material also holds Oeko-Tex Standard 100 certification, that provides independent third-party confirmation that the finished product tests below defined thresholds for many of the same substances, complementing the mandatory REACH baseline.

Durability as Environmental Performance

The most significant and least discussed sustainability factor in faux leather is service life. A material that lasts is a material that does not need replacing, and the environmental cost of a replacement cycle, new manufacture, transport, installation, and disposal of the old material, is substantial.

High-specification PVC faux leather achieving in excess of 200,000 Martindale rubs has a service life in contract use measured in decades rather than years. A lower-grade coated fabric achieving 30,000 rubs in the same environment may require replacement several times over the same period. The cumulative material and manufacturing impact of the durable specification is a fraction of the repeated-replacement alternative, even before the disruption and cost of each replacement cycle is considered.

This reframes the durability data on a specification sheet as environmental data. The Martindale rub count, the hydrolysis resistance of PU, the UV stability that prevents surface degradation, and the cold crack resistance that prevents cracking in exterior use are all measures of how long the material will last before it must be replaced. Longevity is the environmental argument that coated fabric can make most credibly.

How the Three Types Compare on Sustainability

Silicone leather leads on most environmental measures. It uses no plasticisers, requires no fire-retardant additives to achieve inherent flame resistance, produces low VOC emissions in manufacture, and does not break down into microplastics in the way that some coated materials can. It is derived from silica, an abundant mineral. Its environmental credentials are defensible to a degree the other types cannot match, and its exceptional durability and UV stability give it the longest service life in demanding applications. The constraint is cost.

PU leather occupies a middle position. It does not contain chlorine, and water-based polyurethane systems significantly reduce VOC emissions in manufacture compared with solvent-based systems. It is generally the more environmentally benign choice between PVC and PU. Its limitation is durability: standard PU is susceptible to hydrolysis and has a shorter service life than PVC or silicone in humid or heavy-use conditions, which works against the longevity argument.

PVC leather is the most durable and most readily certified for fire performance. Its environmental case rests primarily on that durability and on chemical compliance: current-generation PVC using phthalate-free plasticisers and non-heavy-metal stabilisers is a substantially different material from older formulations. Its exceptional abrasion resistance and long service life are the strongest components of its sustainability position.

What to Request for a Sustainability-Led Specification

Where a project brief requires documented sustainability credentials for faux leather, define the specific requirements rather than accepting a general claim.

Request a UK REACH compliance declaration confirming phthalate-free formulation and the absence of restricted heavy metal stabilisers and azo dyes.

Request Oeko-Tex Standard 100 certification where available, specifying the class appropriate to the application.

Request the Martindale rub count and, for exterior or marine applications, the UV light fastness and cold crack temperature, and present these as service-life and therefore sustainability data.

Where recycled content is a requirement, request confirmation of recycled backing content and any GRS certification covering it, noting that GRS certifies recycled content origin rather than overall environmental performance.

For projects where silicone leather’s environmental profile justifies its cost, specify it directly for the applications where its properties are genuinely required rather than across the whole scheme.

Quick answers

Is faux leather environmentally friendly?
Faux leather sustainability is best assessed through specific documented dimensions rather than a single claim: chemical compliance under UK REACH, durability and service life, and the certifications the material holds. A durable, REACH-compliant, phthalate-free coated fabric with a long service life has a defensible sustainability position. Silicone leather leads on most environmental measures, PU sits in the middle, and PVC’s case rests on its exceptional durability and current-generation chemical compliance.

Is PVC faux leather safe?
High-specification PVC faux leather compliant with UK REACH is manufactured without the restricted phthalate plasticisers and heavy metal stabilisers used in older formulations. Current-generation material uses phthalate-free plasticisers and calcium-zinc stabiliser systems. Request a REACH compliance declaration confirming phthalate-free formulation, and an Oeko-Tex Standard 100 certificate where available for independent confirmation that the finished product tests below defined substance thresholds.

How does durability affect faux leather sustainability?
Durability is the most significant sustainability factor in faux leather. A material achieving 200,000 Martindale rubs and a service life measured in decades requires replacement far less frequently than a lower-grade material achieving 30,000 rubs in the same environment. The environmental cost of each replacement cycle, new manufacture, transport, installation, and disposal, is substantial, so the durable specification has a fraction of the cumulative impact. Durability data is environmental data.

Which faux leather is most sustainable?
Silicone leather leads on most environmental measures. It uses no plasticisers, needs no fire-retardant additives to achieve inherent flame resistance, produces low VOC emissions, and does not break down into microplastics. It also has the longest service life under UV and temperature extremes. Its constraint is cost. PU is the more environmentally benign choice between PVC and PU, while PVC’s case rests on its durability and current-generation chemical compliance.

What certifications should I request for sustainable faux leather?
Request a UK REACH compliance declaration confirming phthalate-free formulation and the absence of restricted heavy metal stabilisers and azo dyes. Request Oeko-Tex Standard 100 certification at the class appropriate to the application. Request the Martindale rub count and, for exterior or marine use, UV light fastness and cold crack temperature, which function as service-life and therefore sustainability data. Where recycled content is required, request GRS certification covering the recycled backing.

For the full technical comparison of PVC, PU, and silicone leather, see our faux leather types compared guide. For sustainability certifications across all fibre types, see our fabric sustainability certifications guide. For chemical compliance in detail, see our REACH compliance guide.

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Faux Leather Types Compared: PVC vs PU vs Silicone Leather for Upholstery

Brown Faux Leather Upholstery Banquette

Faux Leather Types Compared: PVC, PU and Silicone Leather for Interior Designers

Most durable for contract use: PVC — highest abrasion resistance, best chemical resistance, inherently suited to Crib 5 certification
Softest handle: PU — closer to genuine leather in feel, better breathability, lower abrasion resistance than PVC
Best for marine, healthcare, and outdoor: Silicone leather — inherently flame resistant, UV stable, no plasticisers, widest temperature range
Kothea range: Faux Leather 3 is PVC — 100,000+ Martindale, Crib 5, wipe-clean, 140cm wide

Faux leather is not a single material. The term covers three structurally distinct product types — PVC, PU, and silicone leather — each with different performance profiles, fire characteristics, cleaning requirements, and environmental credentials. Specifying between them on the basis of appearance alone is the most common error in faux leather selection. This guide explains the differences that matter for a professional specification.

For background on Martindale rub counts referenced throughout this guide, see our Martindale rub test guide. For fire standards, see our Crib 5 guide and, for marine projects, our IMO marine fire standards guide.

What All Three Have in Common

PVC, PU, and silicone leather are all coated fabrics. They consist of a woven or knitted textile backing, typically polyester, to which a polymer coating is applied to create a surface that resembles leather. The backing provides tensile strength, dimensional stability, and the base for the coating to adhere to. The coating determines the surface properties: appearance, feel, stain resistance, fire behaviour, UV resistance, and cleaning compatibility.

All three can be produced in a wide range of colours and surface textures. All three are sold by the metre without the hide-size limitations of genuine leather. All three are easier to specify consistently across large projects than genuine leather, where dye lot and grain variation between hides is unavoidable. None requires the animal welfare considerations associated with genuine leather.

Beyond these shared characteristics, the three types diverge significantly in performance, sustainability, and appropriate application.

PVC Leather (Polyvinyl Chloride)

PVC leather is the most widely used faux leather in UK contract interiors. It consists of a PVC polymer paste coating applied over a polyester backing. The structure is dense and impermeable, with no open pores in the surface coating. This is what gives PVC leather its characteristic durability, stain resistance, and ease of cleaning.

Durability. PVC leather achieves the highest abrasion resistance of any faux leather type. High-specification PVC ranges routinely exceed 100,000 Martindale rubs. The dense multi-layer structure resists surface wear better than PU at equivalent price points. This makes PVC the default choice for hotel restaurant seating, bar stools, transport upholstery, and any application where the fabric will receive sustained and continuous contact.

Fire rating. PVC contains inherent fire-resistant properties due to its high chlorine content. A correctly formulated PVC faux leather can achieve BS 5852 Crib 5 certification without backcoating, though the specific compound formulation and any foam used in a composite test must be confirmed by an independent test certificate. PVC faux leather is among the most readily Crib 5-certifiable upholstery materials available.

Cleaning and chemical resistance. PVC resists water, alcohol, disinfectants, and most common cleaning agents. The impermeable surface can be wiped clean between uses without specialist products. This is the property that makes PVC faux leather the standard choice for healthcare environments, food and beverage seating, and any application where contamination is a practical concern. Confirm compatibility between specific cleaning agents and the specific product before specifying for environments using industrial or hospital-grade disinfectants.

Light fastness. PVC has good inherent UV resistance, typically achieving ISO 105-B02 grade 6 or above in mid and dark colourways. This is significantly better than most natural-fibre upholstery fabrics and makes PVC suitable for south-facing rooms and high-light environments where natural fabrics would require careful colourway selection.

Handle and breathability. PVC leather is the least breathable of the three types. In sustained contact, particularly in warm environments, the impermeable surface can feel warm or sticky. This is rarely a significant factor for seating used in short intervals — restaurant chairs, bar stools, meeting room chairs — but is relevant for seating used for extended periods, such as office chairs or long-haul transport seating where PU may be preferred.

Chemical compliance. PVC faux leather is subject to REACH, the chemical safety regulation restricting substances of very high concern. Phthalate plasticisers including DEHP, DBP, DIBP, and BBP have been restricted to 1,000 mg per kg in consumer textiles since November 2020, and high-specification PVC faux leather now commonly uses phthalate-free plasticiser formulations and REACH-compliant stabilisers as standard. Request a REACH compliance declaration confirming the absence of restricted substances from the supplier, rather than relying on a general assurance. The durability of high-specification PVC is a relevant factor alongside chemical compliance: a fabric achieving 200,000 Martindale rubs and a service life measured in decades requires replacement far less frequently than shorter-lived alternatives, which reduces the cumulative material and manufacturing impact over the life of an installation. For a full treatment of chemical compliance, durability, and certification as sustainability measures, see our faux leather sustainability guide.

Cold weather performance. PVC faux leather can stiffen and crack in sustained low temperatures as the plasticisers within the polymer approach their glass transition point. This is tested to ISO 17233, which determines the cold crack temperature of a surface coating by flexing it at progressively lower temperatures until it fractures. Standard PVC formulations typically begin to stiffen around 0 degrees Celsius and may crack if flexed below minus 5 degrees. Cold-resistant formulations, using different plasticiser chemistry, can be specified to withstand minus 20 degrees or lower. This is a relevant specification question for marine exterior use, outdoor terrace furniture, and any cold-climate installation, and should be confirmed with the supplier alongside the standard Martindale and fire certification data. For the test method and what figures to specify, see our cold crack temperature testing guide.

Cost position. Mid-range. High-specification PVC faux leather offering 100,000+ Martindale rubs and Crib 5 certification is competitively priced relative to the performance it delivers. It is typically less expensive than equivalent-performing PU microfibre or silicone leather.

Best for: Hotel restaurant and bar seating, healthcare upholstery, transport seating, high-traffic contract environments, marine exterior seating, headboards in hotel bedrooms, wall panelling in food and beverage environments.

Not recommended for: Extended-contact seating in warm environments where breathability matters. Sustained sub-zero temperature exposure without a cold-resistant formulation confirmed. Applications requiring inherent flame resistance without reliance on PVC chemistry.

For a direct two-way comparison of these two materials and which to specify, see our PVC vs PU leather guide.

PU Leather (Polyurethane)

PU leather consists of a polyurethane coating applied over a textile backing, typically a cotton or polyester base. The polyurethane surface is softer, more flexible, and more breathable than PVC, and produces a finish that more closely resembles genuine leather in handle and drape.

Durability. Standard PU leather achieves 30,000 to 80,000 Martindale rubs depending on construction and grade. High-specification PU microfibre products, where the PU coating is applied to a microfibre non-woven backing, can exceed 100,000 rubs and approach PVC performance. However, at equivalent price points, PVC typically outperforms standard PU in abrasion resistance. PU is also more susceptible to degradation from hydrolysis — the breakdown of the polymer by moisture and humidity over time — particularly in warm, humid environments. This is the primary cause of the peeling and surface delamination seen in lower-grade PU after two to three years of use.

Fire rating. PU does not have the inherent fire resistance of PVC. PU faux leather typically requires a fire-retardant additive or backcoating to achieve BS 5852 Crib 5 certification. The treatment adds cost and affects lead time. Always confirm the Crib 5 certification method with the supplier — whether inherent to the formulation or applied — and request the independent test certificate.

Cleaning and chemical resistance. PU leather is water-resistant but less resistant to solvents and alcohol than PVC. The micro-surface of PU is more prone to absorbing certain staining agents over time. PU is generally not recommended for environments where strong disinfectants are used routinely. Confirm the specific cleaning regime with the supplier before specifying for healthcare or high-frequency cleaning environments.

Light fastness. PU achieves good light fastness — typically ISO 105-B02 grade 5 to 6 — though slightly lower than PVC in most cases. Standard PU is not recommended for outdoor use. High-specification PU microfibre designed for automotive applications achieves better UV performance, but standard contract PU faux leather should be confirmed for light fastness before specifying in south-facing or high-light environments.

Handle and breathability. PU is softer and more breathable than PVC. In extended seating use it is more comfortable and does not produce the warm or sticky sensation associated with PVC in warm conditions. For office seating, residential-specification seating in hospitality environments, and any application where extended contact comfort matters, PU offers a noticeably better tactile experience.

Environmental profile. PU is more environmentally benign than PVC in manufacture and disposal. It does not contain chlorine and does not produce dioxins. Some PU products use water-based polyurethane systems, which significantly reduce VOC emissions during manufacture. PU is the more sustainable choice between PVC and PU for projects with environmental requirements, though silicone leather goes further on most sustainability measures.

Cost position. Mid to high. Standard PU faux leather is broadly comparable to PVC. High-specification PU microfibre products are premium priced.

Best for: Luxury residential specification where genuine leather handle is desired without the maintenance requirements. Boutique hotel seating where tactile quality is a client priority. Office seating where extended contact comfort matters. Environments where PVC sustainability concerns are commercially relevant.

Not recommended for: High-humidity environments where hydrolysis degradation is a risk. Environments requiring regular disinfectant cleaning. Heavy contract seating where maximum abrasion resistance is the priority. Marine exterior use.

Silicone Leather

Silicone leather is a coated fabric where the coating is a silicone resin rather than a PVC or PU polymer. It is the newest of the three types in commercial interior use and commands a significant price premium. Its performance profile is distinctive enough to make it the correct specification in a specific set of applications.

Durability. Silicone leather achieves high abrasion resistance — 100,000 Martindale rubs and above — and is resistant to UV degradation, extreme temperatures, and chemical exposure in ways that PVC and PU cannot match. The silicone polymer does not break down under UV light, maintains flexibility at low temperatures where PVC may crack, and remains stable at high temperatures. This makes it the correct specification for outdoor and semi-outdoor use, and for environments with extreme temperature or UV exposure.

Fire rating. Silicone is inherently flame resistant. The polymer structure does not require plasticisers or fire-retardant additives to achieve fire resistance. This inherent property survives cleaning and does not degrade over the life of the fabric. For applications where fire certification must survive aggressive cleaning regimes — healthcare, public transport, marine interiors — the inherent nature of silicone’s fire resistance is a significant specification advantage.

Cleaning and chemical resistance. Silicone leather has the best chemical resistance of the three types. Its low surface tension makes it inherently stain-resistant and resistant to oils, solvents, disinfectants, and most common cleaning agents. Hospital-grade disinfectants, bleach solutions, and alcohol-based cleaners that would degrade PU and may affect certain PVC formulations over time can be used on silicone leather without surface damage.

Light fastness. Silicone leather offers the best UV resistance of the three types. The polymer structure does not degrade under UV exposure in the way that PVC and PU can over time. Silicone leather is the correct specification for outdoor seating, terraces, poolside furniture, and marine exterior cushions exposed to sustained sunlight.

Handle and breathability. High-quality silicone leather has a distinctive soft, smooth handle that is different from both PVC and PU. It does not have the rigidity or warmth-retention of PVC, and its surface does not develop the micro-cracking associated with ageing PU. The handle is a matter of preference but it does not closely approximate genuine leather in the way that high-grade PU can.

Environmental profile. Silicone is derived from silica, a naturally occurring mineral. The manufacturing process uses no solvents, produces low VOC emissions, and no dioxins or phthalates. Silicone does not break down into microplastics. It can be downcycled at end of life. Silicone leather is the most environmentally responsible of the three types by most measures, and its environmental credentials are defensible to a degree that PVC and standard PU are not.

Cost position. High. Silicone leather commands a significant premium over PVC and PU. For most standard contract applications where PVC would perform adequately, the premium is not justified by the performance advantage. Where the specific properties of silicone — UV stability, temperature range, chemical resistance, inherent flame resistance — are genuinely required, the cost is appropriate.

Best for: Outdoor and semi-outdoor seating exposed to UV and weather. Marine interior seating on commercial and charter vessels where IMO certification is required and inherent flame resistance is an advantage. Healthcare environments requiring aggressive chemical cleaning with inherent fire resistance. High-end residential projects where sustainability credentials are a client requirement.

Not recommended for: Standard contract interiors where PVC delivers equivalent performance at lower cost. Any project where budget is a primary constraint.

Comparison at a Glance

Martindale rub count: PVC high-specification 100,000+; PU standard 30,000 to 80,000, PU microfibre 100,000+; silicone 100,000+.

Fire certification: PVC can achieve Crib 5 inherently; PU typically requires FR additive or backcoating; silicone is inherently flame resistant.

Cleaning compatibility: PVC excellent with most agents; PU good with mild products, caution with solvents; silicone excellent with all agents including hospital-grade disinfectants.

UV resistance: PVC good, grade 6+; PU moderate, grade 5 to 6; silicone excellent, stable under extended UV exposure.

Breathability: PVC low; PU moderate; silicone moderate.

Chemical compliance and durability: PVC REACH compliant with phthalate-free formulations available, best durability of the three; PU REACH compliant, moderate durability, susceptible to hydrolysis; silicone no plasticisers required, longest service life under UV and temperature extremes.

Cost relative to performance: PVC best value for standard contract use; PU best value where handle and breathability matter; silicone justified where its specific properties are genuinely required.

Kothea Faux Leather

Kothea’s Faux Leather 3 is a high-specification PVC faux leather achieving in excess of 100,000 Martindale rubs with a Crib 5 fire rating. It is 140cm wide, available in over 20 colourways, and carries a wipe-clean surface compatible with water-based hotel and contract cleaning products. It is the correct specification for hotel restaurant and bar seating, headboards, wall panelling, and high-traffic contract upholstery where maximum durability, fire certification, and cleaning compatibility are the primary requirements.

For hotel and hospitality specification guidance including Martindale thresholds by room type, see our hotel fabric specification guide. For marine projects requiring IMO certification, see our IMO marine fire standards guide.

Quick answers

What is the difference between PVC and PU faux leather?
PVC faux leather uses a polyvinyl chloride coating and has the highest abrasion resistance, best chemical resistance, and most readily achievable Crib 5 fire rating of any faux leather type. PU faux leather uses a polyurethane coating and is softer, more breathable, and more environmentally responsible than PVC, but typically achieves lower abrasion resistance at equivalent price points and requires FR treatment to achieve Crib 5. PVC is the standard choice for heavy contract use. PU is preferred where tactile quality and breathability matter more than maximum durability.


What is silicone leather and when should I specify it?
Silicone leather is a coated fabric where the surface coating is silicone resin rather than PVC or PU. It is inherently flame resistant, UV stable, resistant to extreme temperatures, and compatible with hospital-grade cleaning agents. It commands a significant price premium over PVC and PU and is the correct specification for outdoor and semi-outdoor seating, marine interiors, healthcare environments requiring aggressive chemical cleaning, and high-end projects where environmental sustainability is a client requirement. For most standard contract interiors, PVC delivers equivalent or superior performance at lower cost.


Which faux leather is most durable for hotel use?
High-specification PVC faux leather is the most durable and most practically suited to hotel use. It achieves 100,000+ Martindale rubs, can be Crib 5 certified, and is compatible with the water-based and alkaline cleaning products used in hotel housekeeping. PU leather at equivalent price points achieves lower abrasion resistance and is less resistant to the cleaning chemicals used in hotel environments. For hotel restaurant seating, bar stools, and headboards, PVC is the default specification. See our hotel fabric specification guide for Martindale thresholds by room type.


Is PVC faux leather suitable for marine use?
PVC faux leather is suitable for marine use subject to fire certification. For private yachts, a Crib 5 certificate is typically sufficient. For commercial charter vessels under the MCA Large Commercial Yacht Code, the fabric must hold an IMO FTP Code Part 8 certificate obtained from an IMO-approved laboratory. A Crib 5 certificate does not substitute for an IMO Part 8 certificate on commercial vessels. PVC is well suited to marine environments in terms of moisture resistance, UV stability, and cleaning compatibility. Silicone leather offers superior UV and temperature performance for exterior marine applications. See our IMO marine fire standards guide for full detail.


Does faux leather fade in sunlight?
PVC faux leather typically achieves ISO 105-B02 grade 6 or above and is suitable for most residential and contract environments including south-facing rooms. PU achieves grade 5 to 6 and should be confirmed for high-light environments. Silicone leather is the most UV stable of the three types and is the correct specification for outdoor or sustained direct-sunlight applications. For full guidance on light fastness grades and room orientation, see our light fastness guide.


Is PVC faux leather REACH compliant?
High-specification PVC faux leather is subject to REACH, which restricts phthalate plasticisers including DEHP, DBP, DIBP, and BBP to 1,000 mg per kg in consumer textiles. Current PVC faux leather commonly uses phthalate-free plasticiser formulations and REACH-compliant stabilisers as standard. Request a specific REACH compliance declaration from the supplier confirming the absence of restricted substances, rather than a general assurance. Silicone leather requires no plasticisers at all, and PU leather is also REACH compliant in current formulations.

For healthcare fabric specification including silicone leather and healthcare-grade PVC, see our healthcare fabric guide. For when to use faux leather instead of velvet, see our when not to use velvet guide.

For faux leather specification in outdoor terraces and semi-outdoor hospitality environments, see our outdoor terrace fabric specification guide.

For Building Safety Act 2022 documentation requirements for fabric in higher-risk buildings, see our Building Safety Act guide. For the full specification library organised by environment, application, and performance need, see our fabric buying guide by purpose.

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The Martindale Rub Test: Complete Guide for Upholstery Specification

The Martindale rub test is the UK and European standard for measuring how much abrasion an upholstery fabric can withstand before it wears out. This guide explains what the test measures, what each rub-count classification means, and how to specify the right figure for a project.

What the Martindale Test Is

The Martindale test is a standardised method for measuring a fabric’s resistance to abrasion. It simulates the wear a fabric experiences in normal use on upholstered furniture by rubbing a fabric sample against a standard abrasive surface under controlled conditions and counting how many cycles the fabric can withstand before showing visible signs of deterioration.

The result is expressed as a number of rubs or cycles, always reported in multiples of 5,000. The higher the number, the more resistant the fabric is to abrasion, and the more suitable it is for demanding applications.

The test is defined under the international standard BS EN ISO 12947, which has four parts covering the testing apparatus, determination of specimen breakdown, determination of mass loss, and assessment of appearance change. Part 2, the determination of specimen breakdown, is the most commonly cited in fabric specifications.

A Brief History

The test takes its name from J.G. Martindale, who developed the method in 1942 at the Wool Industries Research Association, known as WIRA, for wartime research into gas-protection fabrics. It was not originally designed for upholstery. Its application to furniture and interior textiles came later, as the method proved to be a reliable and repeatable way of measuring abrasion resistance across a wide range of fabric types. It was adopted as a British Standard and subsequently incorporated into the European and international standards framework as BS EN ISO 12947. Today it is used by fabric manufacturers, test houses, and specifiers across the UK, Europe, and internationally as the benchmark for upholstery durability.

How the Test Works

A circular sample of the fabric under test, 140mm in diameter, is mounted face-down in a specimen holder on the lower plate of the Martindale machine. A foam backing is placed behind the sample to simulate the padding of upholstered furniture. A smaller disc of worsted wool fabric, 38mm in diameter, is mounted on the upper plate as the abradant. Under some test configurations wire mesh is used as the abradant instead of wool.

The machine applies a constant load of 12 kilopascals, equivalent to approximately 120 grams per square centimetre, which simulates the pressure of a seated person. The upper plate then moves against the lower plate in a Lissajous curve, which is a compound figure-of-eight motion that ensures the abrasion is applied in multiple directions rather than a single line. This multidirectional motion is what distinguishes the Martindale method from the Wyzenbeek method, which applies abrasion in a straight back-and-forth line.

The test pauses every 5,000 cycles and the sample is inspected under a standardised light source. The inspector looks for two complete yarn breaks or a noticeable change in the appearance of the fabric surface, such as pilling, flattening, or loss of pile. When either of these conditions is met, the test ends and the cycle count at that point is the fabric’s Martindale rub count.

Because the test pauses at 5,000-cycle intervals, the result is always a multiple of 5,000. A fabric described as achieving 25,000 rubs reached that interval and passed; it was not tested through the full 30,000 interval. Multiple samples from different areas of the same fabric are tested simultaneously to account for variation within the material. The abradant is replaced after every 50,000 cycles to prevent glazing, which would artificially inflate results.

Martindale Rub Count Chart: UK Classifications

The following chart gives the standard UK and European Martindale classifications, the rub-count band for each, and the typical application.

ClassificationMartindale rub countTypical application
DecorativeUnder 10,000Cushions, throws, accent pieces with minimal friction
Light domestic10,000 to 15,000Occasional-use furniture in low-traffic rooms
General domestic15,000 to 25,000Everyday living room sofas and dining chairs
Heavy domestic and light contract25,000 to 40,000High-use family furniture, private offices, boutique hotel bedrooms
Contract40,000 and aboveHotels, restaurants, bars, and offices in daily multi-user use
Severe contract100,000 and aboveTransport seating, healthcare, and continuous round-the-clock use

What the Rub Count Means in Practice

The rub count is a guide to the appropriate application of a fabric, not a guarantee of a specific lifespan. The following thresholds represent the standard classifications used in the UK and Europe, with examples from the Kothea range at each level.

Under 10,000 rubs: decorative use only. Fabrics at this level are suitable for cushions, throws, and accent pieces that receive minimal friction. They are not suitable for any application where a person will sit on or lean against the fabric regularly.

10,000 to 15,000 rubs: light domestic use. Suitable for occasional-use furniture in low-traffic rooms, such as a bedroom accent chair that is rarely sat on, or decorative cushion covers on a guest bedroom bed. Often applicable to fabrics with delicate yarns that require dry cleaning. Not recommended for main living room seating.

15,000 to 25,000 rubs: general domestic use. The standard range for everyday household furniture including living room sofas and dining chairs in a single-occupancy or couple household. Kothea’s Relax Linen at over 15,000 rubs and Linen Velvet at 20,000 rubs sit within this band, making them suitable for residential upholstery in schemes where appearance takes priority over heavy-use durability.

25,000 to 40,000 rubs: heavy domestic and light contract use. Suitable for high-use family furniture with children and regular daily use, and for light commercial applications such as a private office or a boutique hotel bedroom that is not turned over multiple times per day. Kothea’s Restful Linen at over 45,000 rubs falls into this band and above, making it suitable for contract bedroom seating and residential upholstery in heavily used rooms.

40,000 rubs and above: contract grade. The standard threshold for commercial upholstery in hotels, restaurants, bars, and offices. Fabric at this level is specified where furniture will receive daily use by multiple different people over an extended period without replacement or reupholstering. Kothea’s Recline Linen achieves 80,000 Martindale rubs. Mohair Velvet achieves 100,000 Martindale rubs. Fine Cotton Velvet achieves 110,000 Martindale rubs. Faux Leather 3 achieves in excess of 200,000 Martindale rubs, placing it among the most abrasion-resistant upholstery fabrics available for contract specification.

A note on diminishing returns. Results above 50,000 rubs have little additional practical impact on longevity for most residential applications. The difference between a fabric at 50,000 and one at 100,000 is not meaningful in a domestic living room. The significance of very high rub counts lies in the most demanding contract environments: transport seating, healthcare waiting rooms, casino public areas, and anywhere furniture is in continuous use around the clock.

What the Martindale Test Does Not Measure

The rub count is one indicator of fabric performance, not a complete picture of durability. Specifiers should be aware of the following limitations.

UV light resistance and fading. The Martindale test is conducted in a controlled environment with no light exposure. A fabric that achieves 100,000 rubs may fade significantly in a south-facing room within a year. Light fastness is a separate property tested against the Blue Wool Scale under a different standard entirely.

Pilling. Pilling is the formation of small fibre balls on the surface of a fabric through repeated rubbing. It is a normal characteristic of many natural and blended fibres and is not the same as abrasion failure. A fabric can pill at relatively low rub counts without the yarns breaking. Pilling resistance is assessed separately and is particularly relevant when specifying wool and mohair fabrics.

Staining and liquid resistance. The test is conducted dry. It gives no information about how a fabric will respond to spillage, moisture, or cleaning agents. A high rub count does not indicate stain resistance.

Pet damage. Cat and dog claws create a tearing and snagging force that is entirely different from the flat circular abrasion of the Martindale machine. No rub count, however high, predicts resistance to animal claws.

Seam slippage and tensile strength. The abrasion test is conducted on a flat sample away from seams. A fabric that performs well in abrasion may have poor seam strength when cut, sewn, and stretched over a frame. Tensile strength is a separate test.

Chemical degradation. Cleaning agents, solvent-based spot removers, and harsh detergents can degrade fabric fibres and surface finishes in ways the Martindale test does not simulate. Always confirm the appropriate cleaning code for a fabric before specifying it in an environment where soiling and cleaning will be frequent.

Furniture construction and padding. The rub count assumes the fabric is correctly upholstered over adequate padding. Fabric specified at 40,000 rubs applied over a poorly padded frame with sharp edges will fail prematurely because the real stress concentrates at contact points the laboratory test does not replicate.

Martindale and Wyzenbeek: the Key Difference

Designers working on international projects, particularly those involving US clients or global hotel brands, will encounter both the Martindale and Wyzenbeek test standards. The two are frequently confused and occasionally treated as interchangeable. They are not.

The Wyzenbeek test, defined under ASTM D4157, is the standard used in North America. It applies abrasion in a straight back-and-forth motion along the warp and weft of the fabric using cotton duck or wire mesh as the abradant. Each back-and-forth movement is called a double rub. The test ends when two yarn breaks occur or noticeable wear is observed.

The Martindale test applies abrasion in a multidirectional Lissajous figure-of-eight motion. Because it tests multiple directions simultaneously, it subjects the fabric to a more complex pattern of stress than the straight-line Wyzenbeek test.

There is no reliable conversion factor between the two tests. A common industry rule of thumb holds that Martindale results run approximately one third higher than Wyzenbeek results for equivalent fabrics, and that for heavy-duty contract use a specifier might require either 30,000 Wyzenbeek double rubs or 40,000 Martindale cycles as the minimum. This is a directional guide only. A fabric that achieves a given Wyzenbeek score cannot be assumed to achieve any particular Martindale score without being independently tested to both standards. The two tests measure different properties of abrasion resistance and success in one does not infer success in the other.

For a detailed comparison of the two methods, including end-use specification guidance, see our full comparison: Wyzenbeek vs Martindale guide.

For projects governed by UK and European standards, always require Martindale figures. For projects governed by US or North American standards, require Wyzenbeek figures. Do not attempt to derive one from the other.

How to Specify Correctly

Match the rub count to the actual use, not the most demanding possible use. Over-specifying abrasion resistance frequently leads to specifying a fabric that is technically correct but aesthetically wrong for the project. A fabric rated at 100,000 rubs is not necessary in a private bedroom and the range of available fabrics at that performance level is narrower than at 25,000 rubs.

Consider the full performance profile. Alongside the Martindale figure, check the cleaning code, light fastness rating, fire rating, and pilling resistance before finalising a specification. Each of these is independent of the rub count.

Confirm the test conditions. Ask the supplier whether the rub count was achieved with or without a backing, which abradant was used, and which part of ISO 12947 was applied. Results tested with a foam backing are not directly comparable to results tested without one. This level of detail is rarely published on a standard product sheet but a serious supplier will have it available.

Require third party test certificates for contract applications. Self-certified figures carry no independent verification. For contract projects where the rub count or other performance claims carry legal or liability implications, require test certificates from an accredited independent laboratory before specifying.

Use the rub count alongside a sample. A sample in the hand tells you things the rub count cannot: handle, drape, pile direction, surface texture, and how the fabric behaves when manipulated. Specify by rub count to confirm technical suitability, then choose by sample.

For the US equivalent abrasion test and how Wyzenbeek double rubs differ from Martindale rubs, see our Wyzenbeek vs Martindale guide.

For pilling resistance — a distinct property from abrasion measured by a separate test — see our pilling resistance guide.

Martindale Rub Counts Across the Kothea Range

Kothea supplies Martindale rub count data for all relevant fabric ranges. The following gives a summary by performance level.

  • 15,000 rubs and above: Relax Linen (100% linen, pre-washed)
  • 20,000 rubs: Linen Velvet (100% linen pile)
  • 45,000 rubs and above: Restful Linen (100% linen, pre-washed)
  • 80,000 rubs: Recline Linen (54% linen 35% cotton 11% polyamide, pre-washed)
  • 100,000 rubs: Mohair Velvet (pile 100% mohair, inherent Crib 5)
  • 110,000 rubs: Fine Cotton Velvet (100% cotton)
  • In excess of 200,000 rubs: Faux Leather 3 (1% PU 82% PVC 17% polyester, Crib 5)

Wyzenbeek: The US Abrasion Standard

Wyzenbeek (ASTM D4157) is the US abrasion standard, expressed in double rubs rather than Martindale rubs. The two figures are not comparable and no reliable conversion exists between them, so a Wyzenbeek count cannot substitute for Martindale on a UK specification. For UK and European projects, always specify Martindale to ISO 12947. For the full comparison of the two methods, see our Wyzenbeek vs Martindale guide.

For guidance on when to specify contract-grade performance for residential projects, see our contract fabric for residential projects guide.

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Be Bold. Be Brass.

Source: Be Bold. Be Brass.

Very dark perhaps with a bit of brass. Very unusual with the colour scheme but it works.

We love the low lying seating with the off-black upholstery faux leather.

KOTHEA have a wide range of contract and residential fabrics including many types of faux leather